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Articulate basic drug terminology and drug-taking behavior – Identify the various addictive substances – legal and illegal

One of the most problematic illicit drugs in our society is alcohol. The simple process of fermenting sugar from various naturally occurring fruits and grains has been ubiquitous across cultures and societies since the beginning of civilization. It is so pervasive within our society as to also seems to be a seamless part of it. One cannot easily characterize a particular type of person or group that is likely to be alcohol dependent; the affliction cuts across all imaginable demographics of society. Some people are able to drink on occasion for pleasure, whether alone or with friends. Others drink on a daily basis; others periodically binge. 

Here’s a quick, 9-minute history of the science, creation and use of alcohol across cultures, courtesy of SciShow.com:

https:// present, it has been estimated that approximately 18 million Americans have a serious problem related to the use of alcohol. These 30% of all consumers of alcohol account for about 80% of all alcohol consumed. Men outnumber women in heavy alcohol use by a ratio of around three to one.

The heaviest users of alcohol, in turn, directly or indirectly impact an even larger percentage of the population with their subsequent behaviors while intoxicated. The costs of alcohol abuse and dependence are significant: this drug is the third leading cause of death and is implicated in over half of all deaths and injuries in car accidents and half of all physical assaults and homicides. Further, it has been estimated that at least four family members are directly affected from the maladaptive behaviors that follow from the alcohol-abusing individual; you can quickly begin to see extensive the social, familial, occupational, and emotional impact of this disorder. 

What’s the difference between alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence?

The initial psychiatric diagnosis that could be made for an individual that habitually uses alcohol to excess would be alcohol abuse. This diagnosis is characterized by the continued use of alcohol for at least a period of one month, despite having a recurrent physical problem or some serious personal problem in one’s social or occupational functioning because of the excessive drinking or the repeated use of alcohol in situations (e.g., driving) when consumption is physically hazardous.

The diagnosis of alcohol dependence reflects an even greater degree of impairment in individuals compared to alcohol abuse. Alcohol dependence typically involves at least three of the following serious circumstances: (1) drinking alcohol in greater amounts and over a longer period of time than intended by the individual; (2) a strong desire by the individual to reduce consumption and several unsuccessful attempts to do so; (3) spending a great deal of time drinking or recovering from the negative effects of excessive drinking; (4) continued drinking even though physical and/or psychological problems are apparent and problematic in the individual’s life; (5) social, work, or recreational activities have been significantly reduced or abandoned because of excessive drinking; (6) the development of marked tolerance for alcohol; and (7) consumption of alcohol specifically to avoid the symptoms of withdrawal. About 15 percent of men and 10 percent of women in the United States have met the diagnostic criteria for alcohol dependence during their lifetime.

How does alcohol affect the brain?

Alcohol, as a drug, acts as a depressant on the individual’s central nervous system. It is a small molecule and is quickly absorbed in the bloodstream. Alcohol is linked to inhibiting receptors for the neurotransmitter GABA. In low doses, alcohol depresses the inhibitory functions of the brain, including those areas of the brain that typically adhere to the social controls and inhibitory rules that people typically follow in society. As the alcohol concentration increases in the bloodstream, the depressive function of alcohol extends from the cerebral cortex to areas of functioning that are further (and deeper) into the brain’s primitive and reflexive areas of functioning. In extreme dosing, inhibition of respiratory and motor centers can occur with other symptoms that include stupor or unconsciousness, cool or damp skin, a weak rapid pulse, and shallow breathing. It should be noted that alcohol can only be metabolized and leave the body at a specific rate, regardless of how quickly (or how much) alcohol has been taken in by the individual, so attempts to quickly “sober up” an individual will be unsuccessful.

For more illustration of the science and physical problems associated with habitual alcohol consumption, check out this 4-minute SciShow.com video:

https:// are the behavioral effects of using alcohol?

Individuals experiencing alcohol intoxication will exhibit a variety of maladaptive changes in their behavior and psychological functioning. Examples include inappropriate sexual or aggressive behaviors, impaired judgment, quickly changing moods, incoordination, impaired gait, slurred speech, impaired attention and memory (sometimes to the point of blackout), stupor, and unconsciousness. The degree of symptoms is dose dependent with more pronounced symptoms occurring as the alcohol blood-level increases.

Withdrawing from alcohol intoxication (i.e., a hangover) is also dependent on recent dosing, history of chronic abuse, and involves a variety of symptoms which can include autonomic hyperactivity in the form of profuse sweating and rapid heartbeat, hand tremors, nausea or vomiting, fleeting illusions or hallucinations, psychomotor agitation, anxiety. At worst, grand mal seizures can occur following periods of prolonged and heavy use. Another significant withdrawal phenomenon that chronic, prolonged abusers of alcohol can experience is delirium tremens that is characterized by disturbances in cognitive functions (especially consciousness), autonomic hyperactivity, vivid hallucinations, delusions, and agitation.

Chronic alcohol dependence can lead to a medical condition known as Alcohol-Induced Persisting Amnestic Disorder (also known as Wernicke-Korsakoff’s Syndrome). This disorder is believed to be caused by deficiencies in thiamine and Vitamin B because their absorption in blocked with habitual alcohol consumption. Individuals afflicted with this disorders experience retrograde (the past) and anterograde (new knowledge) amnesia as well as confabulation, which is the tendency to attempt to compensate for memory loss by fabricating memories.

What are some of the life problems associated with heavy alcohol use?

The pervasive impact of chronic alcohol abuse can be seen across several important areas of in life that generally impair one’s ability to function adaptively (i.e., take care of oneself in a manner appropriate for one’s age) and experience a good quality of life. It is a complex problem in living with psychological, physical, and behavioral components. These include (1) demonstrating a preoccupation with alcohol and drinking; (2) demonstrating emotional problems (e.g., depression); (3) having overt problems at work, within one’s family, and other important social relationships because of alcoholism; and (4) associated physical problems that result from habitual alcohol consumption.

Given that alcohol is a central nervous system depressant, it shouldn’t be a surprise that depression can become a comorbid (or co-occurring) condition for some individuals. In general, the incidence of depression in substance abusers is quite high. People who drink alcohol heavily to the point of intoxication can experience very strong emotions and are frequently disinhibited (i.e., impulsive). Feelings of hopelessness, helplessness, and suicidal thoughts often accompany bouts of heavy drinking.

To review the relationship among amount (dosing) of alcohol consumed, blood alcohol levels, and effects on the central nervous system and behavioral performance, check out this five-minute Healthy McGill video here:

https:// is at greatest risk for abuse or dependence?

Research has demonstrated that two risk factors can contribute significantly to the manifestation of alcohol abuse and dependence in the individual. The first risk factor is a family history of chronic alcohol abuse. Children of alcoholic parents have a higher statistical risk of becoming alcoholics themselves when compared to children of nonalcoholic parents. Whether this represents an increase genetic or environmental risk, however, is difficult to determine since both are intertwined in such instances. A second and independent risk factor that has been identified is those cases where an individual has a genetic predisposition to have low response to the psychoactive effects of alcohol (and, as a result, requires higher amounts of alcohol to become intoxicated). Individuals with this lower response to alcohol are more likely to abuse alcohol, as they require considerably more drinking to obtain the level of intoxication experienced by others who drink less to get the same effect.

When taken together, an adult child of an alcoholic who also possesses a low response to the effects of alcohol has an even higher statistical chance of developing a pattern of alcoholism. Keep in mind that all of these examples are just risk factors and statistically probabilities – none of these outcomes are written in stone. Further, research demonstrates that there are also protective factors (variables) in the environment that can also help promote resiliency in some individuals and lead them not to drink alcohol in an excessive or maladaptive fashion when they are present. Clearly, again, the path to alcoholism (and responsible drinking and abstinence) is multi-factorial.

What are some of the treatment options for Alcohol Dependence?

        Unfortunately, flaws in methodology jeopardize much of the research on the effectiveness of alcohol treatment programs. That is, the studies aren’t well controlled in terms of error variance and it cannot be clearly determined whether the observed changes in the studies are due to the employed treatment or other, uncontrolled, factors during the study. For example, many studies do not use untreated comparison groups. One generalization that can be made from the available research is that formal treatments are not always adequate or even necessary. A positive outcome to treatment appears to be related more to the presence of certain psychosocial factors like specific threats to one’s physical or social well-being (i.e., hitting “rock bottom”) than any particular intervention. 

        There are, however, some treatments that have had some success. These treatments have several components in common, including covert sensitization and other forms of aversive counterconditioning. Antabuse, for example, is a medication that, when taken, will result in an individual becoming violently ill should they consume alcohol. Other treatments that put together broad-spectrum interventions such as social skills training, learning to drink in moderation, stress management techniques, and teaching coping skills and other self-control techniques help to teach the individual better, healthier alternatives methods when faced with environmental triggers to consuming alcohol.

        Many modern programs incorporate aspects of Alcoholics Anonymous and/or the drug Antabuse. However, the effectiveness of these treatments has not been empirically demonstrated. One criticism that has been levied on these treatments is that they do not take into account individual differences and the wide variety of psychosocial problems and/or lack of resources that can make successfully managing alcohol consumption. In general, individuals with severe problems with alcohol require more intensive treatments (e.g., inpatient hospitalization), while those who experience less pathological problems require more periodic, milder interventions.

        Another criticism that has been raised about some current treatment programs for alcohol abuse and dependence is that they tend to be based on the belief that failures in treatment are largely due to the individual’s denial of having a problem or otherwise not having an adequate level of motivation. Many therapists have not supported this line of thinking, however. Research on treatment outcome, alternatively, points to the importance of therapist factors such as their level of empathy toward clients and their attitudes about what constitutes healthy recovery as being more related to positive outcomes than client’s own motivation or personality characteristics. 

        Some experts in the field of alcohol research have emphasized the importance of the clients’ reaction to instances of relapse, especially from a cognitive (how they think) and emotional (how they feel) perspectives.  Researchers stress the need to get away from the idea that a relapse represents a “violation of abstinence” which can lead to anxiety, depression, self-blame and an increased likelihood of further alcohol consumption. Alternatively, relapses should be characterized as a mistake that came about from external, controllable factors and not the result of internal factors (e.g., personality characteristics) that are essentially thought to be out of one’s control.

Dually diagnosed individuals (those with a mental illness or personality disorder in addition to a substance abuse disorder) usually have a hard time finding treatment in one place. In many jurisdictions, they have to see a therapist at a mental health center and a separate therapist at a substance abuse center, or they are forced to make a choice of one over the other. You will find that there is often a lack of cross-training between mental health and substance abuse professionals, and that makes it harder for clients to get the treatment they need. Furthermore, in some places, you may find that the treatment support groups for substance abuse have an interpretation of sobriety that prohibits the use of psychotropic medication.

Legal Drugs in Our Society – Part II

        Hopefully, you have found the historical account to date of which drugs have largely been considered illicit, those that have typically been licit and readily available, and those that have switched from one designation to the other, to be an interesting review. Such distinctions among different groups of people and across different periods of time often speak to the changing cultural, social, religious, and scientific beliefs and morays of the time. This week, you will be studying two very popular and legally sanctioned drugs, tobacco and caffeine, that have been readily consumed by people since the beginnings of structured societies. 

Tobacco

From its use in religious ceremonies and purported medicinal herb thousands of years ago to the image of sophistication and modernism it has held in industrialized societies over the last few hundred years, tobacco has occupied a role of prominence among individuals and groups alike.  Think about it: what other drug has been so popularized in society as to be physically accommodated with lighters and ashtrays in automobiles and airplanes? What about spittoons in the restaurants and bars of the late 1800s and early 1900s? How about the smoking cars in trains and smoking sections at airports and restaurants? All these examples serve to demonstrate just how indoctrinated tobacco use has been in modern culture. 

How did tobacco, the plant, get to be such a big deal? Check out this 8-minute history and science video from DNews Plus:

https:// have patterns of tobacco use changed over the decades in the United States and the world? What are some of the reasons for these changes?

Tobacco is interesting and noteworthy in that it is one of the only drugs that has been commercially available, openly accessible, and integrated within the culture of many societies for hundreds and hundreds of years. Further, it has been monetized as a commodity with economic value for the purposes of trade and payment of debts. In some circles, over time and across cultures, tobacco was even used as its own form of currency. In fact, one could certainly argue that the colonization, formation, and military defense of the United States of America occurred largely in part through the economic power generated through tobacco cultivation, sale, and distribution to other European countries.

It is interesting to note the relationship between the amount of government regulation that exists with the tobacco industry and the resultant use by population. There is a clear relationship between the growing regulation in the United States that began in the early 1970s and the eventual decline of tobacco use among large segments of the U.S. population. This can be especially seen in new generational cohorts; that is, the adoption of chronic smoking habits by younger people. Many other European and South American countries do not employ such heavy restrictions on the advertisement, marketing, and accessibility of cigarettes and other tobacco products upon their population. As a result, the decreases in use and dependence that have been realized in the United States have not been generalized to other countries across the world. The zenith of tobacco use in the United States has come and gone. The preponderance of research has clearly demonstrated its pathological effect on the body and that information, plus rigorous regulation, has helped contribute to the decline in its use.

There are a variety of ways to consume tobacco products as a vehicle by which to introduce the drug nicotine into the bloodstream and the brain. Smoking (via cigars, pipes, and cigarettes), chewing, and snuffing are all legitimized drug-using behaviors whose differing favorability has waxed and waned over the years. Over the years, most individuals were shaped into eventually preferring the use of tobacco cigarettes, which could be mass-produced in very high volumes inexpensively.

The intense and intentional role of marketing has been very significant in shaping the appeal to certain demographic groups of the population. The aggressiveness of early mass marketing campaigns also extended themselves, ultimately, to the denial and cover up by corporate America with regards to the deleterious effects of tobacco use. It wasn’t until 1964 that the federal government began to formally investigate the health effects and cost of tobacco use and to institute policies that would eventually lead to the restriction of marketing and sales in the United States. 

What are some of the adverse consequences of smoking?

The deleterious effects, both physically and psychologically, that result from chronic tobacco use have been well documented. The three-fold combination of carbon monoxide, tar, and nicotine can produce a wide variety of lifelong physical ailments, including a higher risk for cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease, and lung cancer than for nonsmokers. As is widely popularized, there are literally thousands of chemical found in cigarette smoke, including ones commonly used in pesticides. Additionally, other forms of cancer have also been implicated with chronic tobacco use. In fact, the vast majority of deaths each year that can be attributed to drug use and dependence are the result of tobacco use and nicotine dependence.

The primary psychoactive drug in tobacco, nicotine, has been determined by research trials to be a dependence-producing substance. As you recall from previous lectures, drug dependence is defined by continued use of a drug even in the face of obvious occupational, physical, familial, and social problems that one experiences in direct relation to its use. This also includes the psychological experience of craving and high drug-seeking behaviors. The rate at which nicotine is absorbed into the blood stream and penetrates the blood-brain barrier certainly speaks to its strong psychoactive properties. Withdrawal symptoms begin as early as six hours after the last dose. Within 24 hours, common complaints can include headache, irritability, problems concentrating, and sleep disturbance. Finally, in the late 1990s, the tobacco industry finally conceded publically that the products they were producing were not only physically harmful to individuals but also that the nicotine contained within then was a dependence-inducing substance.

What are some of the best strategies to employ when attempting to stop using tobacco products?

    You know just how difficult it is to treat nicotine addiction in terms of a smoking cessation program. The research has demonstrated, much like successful treatment programs for other types of drugs, that have a high degree of dependence, that a multimodal approach is best. This type of additive treatment program incrementally increases the probability of success by systematically addressing addiction from a biological, social, operant conditioning, and environmental cue framework. Individuals are encouraged to think deeply about, and even write down, their personal reasons to stop smoking. This cognitive-behavioral approach helps an individual really contemplate the meaning and reasons behind their decision to stop smoking – beyond the simplistic reasons often given by others or conveyed through warning labels or public service announcements. 

Much like treatment for opiate dependence, a gradual reduction of the addictive drug nicotine helps lesse

 

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A degree in psychology is the trump card in the game of jobs and careers. Why?

In many card games, there is a trump card, the card or suit of cards that give the player the advantage. A degree in psychology is the trump card in the game of jobs and careers. Why? As the study of human behavior, psychology can inform all fields. What job does not involve some degree of involvement with people, even if the only person is yourself? 

Remember, psychology is the scientific study of behavior-anything an animal or a person does, feels, or thinks. In other words, students of psychology learn about “how people work.”  Interpersonal skills, understanding how to work with people, enable success in career and personal life. Psychology students learn how to work with people and groups. They become aware of and sensitive to issues of culture, class, race and ethnicity. Psychology students also develop intrapersonal awareness or self-knowledge. They learn how to monitor and manage their own emotions and behavior.

 Trump card: several sub disciplines of psychology address the needs of business and industry. Degree holders in psychology work with owners, managers, and employees of business and organize work environments. Industrial psychology, organizational psychology, and human factors psychology are collectively sometimes referred to as work psychology.

    Industrial psychology studies how people behave in work settings. They employee a scientific approach toward the selection and placing of workers to ensure the maximum job satisfaction and productivity.  An Industrial psychologist is called on to create, validate and choose tests and interviews that prospective employees are asked to complete to determine whether they should be hired and where they should be placed. They determine the criteria or standards by which employees will be evaluated. Industrial psychology is they create applied in the training and development of employees. They create comprehensive employee assessment packages. Some companies have courses designed to ascertain if an employee is qualified or well suited for a job in a certain department or position. 

    Organizational psychologists study what factors contribute to job satisfaction and study factors associated with it, such as employee turnover, absenteeism, age, pay, motivation, and attitudes toward the organization.  They study leadership and how it contributes to the functioning of an organization. They create and continue to develop individual and group training programs.  The goal is to improve the leadership and communication skills of supervisors and managers.

    Human factors psychology is concerned with the interaction between people and their environments.  Recall the conflict of man versus machine/technology from Lit 101? Human factors psychologist is concerned with the interaction between people and machines.  They design work environments to optimize productivity, employee satisfaction, and safety, and limit stress, fatigue, and error. They play a part in national security by deterring future terrorist threats because they analyze and have tools to evaluate proposed changes in equipment, procedures, and regulations in the travel industry.

    It is easy to see how a degree in psychology on the bachelor’s level would prepare you to work in human resources.  Your course work will prepare you to recruit, place administer salaries and benefits, training and conduction research on employee needs and satisfaction. A career in human resources will require your interpersonal and intrapersonal skills. You must be flexible, patient and an excellent communicator.

    As a part of humanity, it becomes clearer with each passing day that it seems to be getting more and more difficult to get along with other humans.  Psychology is the study of how humans work so it helps in every single aspect of life where we must get along and play well with others. What causes social problems like interpersonal violence, prejudice, and stereotyping?  How do we change people’s attitudes?  And since psychologist study people and thinking patterns, they do a great job analyzing why people buy what they buy.

    Social psychology is the study of how people interact with each other and the social environment. Social psychologists study why we act the way we do or in a nutshell – personality. Consumer psychologists study how we process information and make decisions about purchasing products and services.  We have looked at the cards for a while, time to throw out some trump cards.

    A psychology degree is a trump card in the broad field of advertising.  Knowing how people think and how to influence their thinking is the basis of advertising. To prepare for a career in advertising, hone your communication, creative, and organizational skills.  You want to be sure and take courses in social psychology, consumer psychology, marketing, accounting, advertising, business management, communication, and design.

    Think of how your degree would be a trump card in real estate.  As a real estate agent, you must understand the neighborhoods and surrounding communities in which you sell property.  The most successful real estate agents apply psychological principles to their work. Effective sales techniques rely on an understanding of persuasion, and attitude formation and change, important social psychological principles used daily by real estate agents in their marketing, advertising, and client activities.

    Public relations is a field that specializes in communicating information to the public. Specialists in this field anticipate, analyze, and interpret public opinions about organizations to influence an organizations future decisions and business practices.

To access summary information about the work of psychologists specializing in Industrial/Organizational psychology a psychology specialty area of study and practice concerned with the relationships between people and their work environments, worker  retention, satisfaction and productivity, click these links. 

Industrial and Organizational Psychology http://careersinpsychology.org/becoming-an-industrial-or-organizational-psychologist/

Industrial/ Organizational Psychology

access summary information about the work of Social Psychologists, whose research and professional practice expertise is in the impact of social environments and thoughts, feelings and behavior, click these links. 

Social Psychology Careers http://careersinpsychology.org/becoming-a-social-psychologist/

Frequently Asked Questions about Social Psychology http:// 6 Lesson

    Experimental Psychology is viewed more as a methodological approach to psychology, rather than as a subject. In the past Experimental psychologists basically conducted research, wrote and published articles, worked in academic settings, where they would teach classes on memory, learning, consciousness, etc. Lately, they focus on topics, such as motivation and social psychology.  would study multiple topics, which includes an extensive range. Some examples of topics studied include memory, language, communication, perception, motivation, and learning.

     Wilhelm Wundt is responsible for Experimental Psychology emerging as an academic discipline, during the 19th century. In 1879, he founded the Institute for Experimental Psychology at the University of Leipzig, in Germany. Some of the earlier experimental psychologists include Herman Ebbinghaus and Edward Titchener, who used introspection, as an experimental method.

     There are a variety of career opportunities at the undergraduate level. However, most positions will be entry level, with few responsibilities. The majority of the responsibilities will be clerical, supervised activities, and data input. A graduate degree will provide more career opportunities, with increased autonomy and responsibility. Geographic location and region is a significant factor, regarding job availability and salaries.

     Let’s discuss a few of the job opportunities with a Bachelor’s degree. One example of a career is Insurance Underwriter. Psychology majors possess a rock-solid liberal arts background, savvy computer skills, quantitative abilities. The role of an insurance underwriter is to assess the risk of loss, appropriate premium rate, and then to write the insurance policy. The services are provided to individuals and companies. The employment outlook for underwriters is not robust. The expectation is that the job will slowly decline through 2018 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010). In 2011, the median salary for an assistant underwriter was $38,041, life insurance planners were $42,882, and $45,828 for property and casualty planners (Salary.com, 2011).

     Two similar careers requiring a Bachelor’s degree are Computer Programmer and Computer Support Specialist. Computer programmers are responsible for writing computer instructions. They also test and debug computer systems to maintain functionality. The average entry-level programmer’s salary was $54,074, in 2011 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010). A Computer Support Specialist tasks include providing technical assistance to users of hardware, software, and computer systems. They address inquiries from users; determine and solve problems; which may involve installing, modifying, cleaning, and repairing computer hardware and software, systems. US News and World Report (2010) has given Computer Support Specialists a rating of a top occupation. Psychology majors’ skills with computers, interpersonal skills, and communication skills are valuable, with careers involving computer support. The median salary for a help-desk technician is $45,497 and for a technical support analyst the median salary is $49,195 (Salary.com, 2011).

     The graduate degree offers more advance career opportunities. One example of a career opportunity is an Operations Research Analyst. Operations research or management science takes a scientific approach, when analyzing problems. The Operations Research Analyst uses mathematics, statistics, and computer science to quantify situations and make appropriate decisions. The median salary for an Operations Research Analyst was $69,000 in 2008 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010). A career as a Financial Analyst uses the extensive background of statistics, provided by a graduate education in experimental psychology, quantitative psychology, and cognitive psychology. They provide services to financial organizations, such as banks, insurance companies, pension, and mutual funds. In 2008, the median yearly salary of Financial Analysts was $73,150 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010).

     Forensic or Legal Psychology has become more familiar, in recent years, due to several popular television shows, such as Criminal Minds and Profile. Forensic Psychology merges or integrates psychology and law. Forensic Psychology applies clinical psychology to a forensic setting. The clinical skills are involved in assessment, treatment, and evaluation to a forensic (crime) setting. A forensic psychologist is would be any psychologist, who works in the legal system. The psychologist is more likely to be trained, as a graduate-level clinical or counseling psychologist.

    The job opportunities offered with a bachelor’s degree include police officer, correctional officer, probation/parole officer, and forensic science technician. Let’s look at the job of a forensic science technician. They work closely with law enforce agencies investigating crime scenes and analyzing crime scene evidence. The median salary in 2006 was $49,857 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010). Forensic Science is a growing field and job growth is predicted. The primary disadvantage of this career is job stress, resulting from law enforcement tasks, high caseloads, and exposure to evidence, which extremely disturbing, emotionally.

     An individual with a Graduate degree have numerous opportunities, in both psychology and law. Clinicians provide a variety of services, such as completing forensic assessments, providing offenders with treatment, and assisting law enforcement officers. The area of Correctional Psychology is focused on the prison population. This area of Forensic Psychology is expected to grow, due to the increasing prison population. Master’s-level psychology holders in clinical and counseling psychology provide treatment for offenders. In 2009, the median salary was $45,000 (Finno & Kohout, 2010). Doctorate-level psychology holders are involved in the rehabilitative aspects of the offender. They develop specialized programs for the offenders and then evaluate their effectiveness. The starting salary for doctorate-level graduates is $62,000 (U.S. Office of Personnel Management, n.d.)

     A Forensic Examiner conducts forensic examinations. In criminal cases, they may be tasked with determining the offender’s ability and competence to stand trial. They are also involved in noncriminal cases. Some of the noncriminal forms of involvement include child custody evaluations and personal injury assessments. To qualify to conduct forensic evaluations, the individual must be trained in psychological assessment. Many Forensic Examiners work in private practice and state institutions, such as secure facilities, which includes community-based mental health centers and hospitals.

For summary information about the work of Experimental Psychologists, click these links.

Degrees in Experimental Psychology http:// and Education in Experimental Psychology http:// Psychology – You Tube

 

For summary information about the work of Forensic Psychologists, click these links. 

Degrees in Forensic Psychology http:// and Education in Experimental Psychology http://careersinpsychology.org/becoming-a-forensic-psychologist/

What is a Forensic Psychologist? YouTube

  Week 3 is packed full with information about two popular career paths in Psychology.  This week we will be discussing clinical and counseling psychology. Our discussion is designed to help students understand why clinical psychology and counseling psychology (along with school psychology) comprise the largest percent of psychology doctoral graduates. According to the American Psychological Association Center for Workforce Studies (2008), 61 percent of students obtaining doctorate degrees in Psychology are in the subfields of clinical, counseling, and school psychology.

  The motivating factor for pursuing training and education in these subfields is a desire to help individuals. Clinical, Counseling, and School Psychology are fields, which provide the specialized skills and training needed to help individuals who are coping with mental illness, emotional or behavioral challenges, and a host of psychological issues. Let’s review what a Clinical and Counseling Psychologist do. We will discuss the areas of employment and opportunities available to both and how they differ in training and specialized skills.

     Clinical Psychology is a broader branch of psychology, than Counseling Psychology. The focus of a Clinical Psychologist is the diagnosis and treatment of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders. They assist individuals with dealing with some of the most common disorders, such as depression, anxiety, substance abuse, and eating disorders. You may be wondering if clinical and counseling psychologists perform the same tasks? Let’s examine this question together.

  Clinical psychology combines science, theory, along with practice to provide explanations and understanding to predict and address psychological problems and the accompanying distress. The main objective is to promote healthy human development and well-being. Counseling psychologists have a similar objective of working to alleviate or reduce distress associated with emotional or behavioral difficulties caused by psychological problems. A major difference between clinical and counseling psychologists is that counseling psychology’s focus is on assisting individuals improve their well-being throughout their lifespan. Their attention is centered on emotional, social, vocational, developmental, organizational, and health concerns.

  The ways Clinical psychologists endeavor to assist people is by attempting to reduce distress and provide assistance to improve their emotional and psychological functioning. The assistance is provided in a by variety of activities, such as assessment, diagnosis, and treatment. Additionally, clinical psychologists participate in consultations and conduct research, with the objective of better understanding human behavior.

    When we consider Counseling psychologists, they are also concerned and involved in reducing distress and providing assistance to improve individuals emotional and psychological functioning. However; their focus encompasses the entire lifespan, which includes emotional, social, vocational, health-related, developmental, and organizational matters. They are more interested in the following: (a)normal functioning and not severely disturbed functioning, (b) positive mental health, involving the individual’s strengths and assets, (c) limited or brief counseling interventions, (d) emphasizes personal and environmental interactions together and not as separate entities, and (e) highlights educational/career development, along with vocational environments. environments.

  Clinical and Counseling Psychologists work in a variety of settings. Many of the employment environments overlap and shared by both. The majority of clinical psychologists are in private practice (39%). The next largest employment area is the academic /university setting, which comprises 22%. The remaining areas and their percentages include: hospitals (7%), outpatient and community mental health clinics (6%), medical schools (8%), Veterans Administrative (VA facilities) comprise 3%. A cluster of additional settings, making up 15%, includes correctional/prison facilities, family services, and rehabilitation centers (Norcross, Karpiak, &Santoro, 2005).

   The settings which many counseling psychologists work in include the following: university and academic settings (15%), private practice (14%), mental health centers/community-based (15%), medical/hospital settings (10%), and 5% in VA facilities (Neimeyer, Bowman, and Steward, 2001). Many counseling clinicians are employed in family services, health maintenance organizations(HMO’s), penal/corrections environments, business firms, and rehabilitation centers.

  We would be remiss if we did not note that some mental health training does not have psychology as the disciplinary root.  There are programs for marriage and family therapy (MFT), rehabilitation, social work, and addiction counseling, which are pursued by students. Students may decide to pursue a doctoral degree; however, a terminal master’s degree (M.S. or M.A.) is the most common. Many states require licensure as a mental health professional, in order to provide counseling or clinical services. Two examples of licensure as a mental health professional are Licensed Professional Counselor (LPC) and Licensed Clinical Social Worker (LCSW).

  Let’s look at service opportunities for bachelor’s degree holders in psychology.  Human services workers occupy a range of positions, not limited to but including social service worker, case management aide, social work assistant, community support worker, mental health aide, community outreach worker, life skills counselor, youth worker, psychological aide, client advocate, and gerontology aide. These positions can be categorized as paraprofessional positions because they are supportive of the roles and responsibilities of a psychologist.

  Services provided by human services workers are both direct and indirect to clients. Their responsibilities include reviewing and assessing clients’ needs and their eligibility for services. Then they assist clients obtain the needed services, such as food stamps, Medicaid, housing, etc. (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010). When working in a community setting, the human service worker helps clients by providing counseling, assisting with daily living skills, and organization of group activities. Human services workers, in clinical settings, such as psychiatric hospitals or outpatient clinics, support patients’ participation in their treatment plans, help with daily living skills, effective communication, and promote social functioning. The median salary of human services workers in 2008 was $27,280 with a peak salary of approximately $43,510 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010).

 Entry –level social worker positions often can be obtained with a bachelor’s degree in psychology. Social workers’ objective is to assist people improve their lives through counseling and identifying needed resources. Social workers work in multiple settings, such as hospitals, schools, community mental health centers, social service agencies, and courts and correctional institutions. Salaries for social workers tend to be moderate, with a median yearly salary in the upper-thirties, about $39,530 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010).

  The majority of counseling professions require graduate degrees for employment, substance abuse counselors are an exception. Substance abuse counselors often are the primary therapist assisting a client with alcohol or drug dependence and abuse. The median salary in 2008 for a substance abuse counselor was $37,030 per year, with half being paid between $29,410 and $47,290 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010).

   Career options and financial prospects in clinical-and counseling –related careers expand dramatically with a graduate degree in psychology. Regarding training, results of empirical research suggest that there are few differences in clinical psychology PH. D, Psy.D, and counseling psychology Ph.D. programs. To understand the difference and opportunities for graduate programs, doctoral degrees, and the time that must be invested, please read pages 28-32 of our textbook. A primary benefit of a graduate degree in clinical or counseling psychology is the flexibility to pursue career opportunities that match one’s own interests, skills and abilities. In 2008, the median salary of all clinical and counseling psychologists was $64,140, with half earning between $48,700 and $82,800 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010).

To access information about the work of psychologists specializing in learning and memory, two sub-specialties within the specialty area cognitive psychology, within the larger field, click these links.

Careers in Cognitive Psychology

http:// 

Career as a Cognitive Psychologist http://careersinpsychology.org/becoming-a-cognitive-psychologist/

 Cognitive Psychologist Career: Job Outlook and Salary Profile http:// Brain is You: Learning and Memory (Part 5 of 6)

http:// To access information about what psychologists specializing in the study and treatment of psychopathology do, click these links.

What Psychotherapists Do http:// in Clinical Psychology http:// Psychologist Careers, Educational Requirements and Salaries http://careersinpsychology.org/becoming-a-clinical-psychologist/

Careers in Clinical Psychology – YouTube

in Psychology: History of Counseling Psychology

we start to consolidate and review information we discussed, in the previous six (6) weeks, I wanted to discuss an additional topic. School psychology is a highly relevant subspecialty considering the challenges facing students, teachers, parents and school administrators today. The training, expertise, and specialized training provided by school psychologists is instrumental in addressing the challenges to result in the best and most effective outcomes. Historically, the school counselor dealt with the problems and issues of the students. When school counseling was initiated in the early 20th century; however, many of the complex issues experienced by today’s students such as bullying, homelessness, and fragmented families, were rare (Bain, 2012).  The complexity of today’s challenges, within school systems, requires collaboration between school counselors and school psychologists to increase favorable outcomes (Zambrano, Villarreal-Castro, & Sullivan, 2012).

Let’s start by discussing what school psychology is and what is needed to become a school psychologist. School psychology is very different from other specializations in psychology. The areas of interest for school psychologists are children, adolescents, and students, along with the education processes. School psychologists are trained in both psychology and education. The primary goal of the school psychologist is to assist students to maximize their education and the academic experience. Their range of interest encompasses not solely academics, but also includes the social, behavioral, emotional, and personal factors, which affect students and their families.

The school systems today are operating with a higher level of accountability. At a time when resources are limited, the school system must meet the needs of the increasing number of their students experiencing academic and mental challenges (Zambrano et al., 2012). An approach to delivering the services to students has been developed called Response to Intervention (RTI), involving both the school counselor and school psychologist (Zambrano et al., 2012).

The collaboration of the school counselor and school psychologist, using RTI, maximizes outcomes and is multifaceted. There is less duplicating of services by counselors and psychologists when they work together. Because of their collaboration, early intervention and prevention actions can be implemented. Because of the professional collaboration, the RTI approach can be implemented and used to the student’s advantage within the school system. Initiating the RTI approach allows school counselors and school psychologists to learn from each other. Lastly, students in graduate programs for school counseling and school psychology become familiar with the common areas of their training (Zambrano et al., 2012).

School psychology has some overlap with clinical and counseling psychology, regarding the tasks and job responsibilities. Consistent with their title and credential as a school psychologist, most of their time, attention, and expertise are centered on schools. They may also be employees at clinics, such as those based in the community, medical centers, prisons, juvenile detention centers, universities, or in private practice (Kuther & Morgan, 2013).

When considering society today and the many issues and situations confronting students, their families, and school systems, the need for school psychologists is evident. The assessments and treatment they provide to students, especially in the kindergarten to 12th (K-12) setting is priceless. Children enter the school system with multiple concerns, which the teachers and school administrators have neither the time nor training to address. Some of the issues and challenges dealt with by school psychologists are psychological, developmental, family structure, and school related, which the school counselor lacks the education, training, and expertise to effectively address.

A review of several challenges for students today clearly highlights the need for school psychologists. A major problem in schools is creating a safe and positive atmosphere in the schools, which will facilitate learning and academic growth. In this regard, school psychologists can work to decrease or prevent bullying, aid the victims of bullying and the perpetrator. Oftentimes, the parents or parent need guidance in how to assist their child, who is involved in school bullying. School psychologists are outstanding advocates for improving and strengthening the relationship between the school and families of the students.

Research has demonstrated bullying is associated with aggression. Schools endeavor to maintain a violence-free environment and preventing bullying is an integral aspect of their objective. The results of bullying to the victim can directly impact their school performance. Bullying is responsible for reduced levels of emotional/psychological well-being, inability to make social adjustments, psychological issues, and physical/medical problems (Jacobsen & Bauman, 2007). The behavior is considered bullying when the following aspects are present: the intention is to inflict harm, repeated behavior, and a clear difference in power between the bully and their victim (Jacobsen & Bauman, 2007).

The services and assistance provided to families become especially important when they have children with special needs or developmental delays. School psychologists can help the family understand their child’s challenges and guide the parents or parent through the specialized education procedures. They are also instrumental in ensuring the family is in touch with services provided by the community. The need for assistance provided by school psychologists increases when considering the number of single parent homes and divorce rates.

In addition to direct contact with students, teachers, families, and school administrators, School psychologists spend time researching and creating developmental programs in schools’ settings. They evaluate the effectiveness of their services and treatments and how to successfully implement educational changes and restructuring (Kuther & Morgan, 2013). The salaries for school psychologists in primary and secondary schools are comparable to counseling and clinical Psychologists. In 2008, the median salary was $65,710 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010). 

Now, let’s review some highlights from Week 1 to Week 4. Our discussion in Week 1 was focused on developmental Psychology. We discussed how we go through multiple changes and stages throughout our lifetime. Developmental psychologists study these changes in development and human growth, over the lifespan. Several notable developmental psychologists include Jacques Rousseau and Erik Erikson. The concerns of developmental psychologists go beyond how individuals grow, develop, and change, during their lifespan. Their concerns include the emotional, intellectual, and physical development of children, adolescents, and adults.

We discussed careers you can pursue with a bachelor’s degree and a graduate degree. Two popular careers with a Bachelor’s degree are Gerontology Aide and Child Life Specialist. The work for both careers can be extremely rewarding but very emotionally draining. The median salary is about $27,280 and about 50% earned between $21,860 and $34,590 in 2008 (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2010).

Developmental psychologists with graduate degrees have additional career opportunities, which allow them to earn higher salaries. Applied developmental psychologists integrate developmental science and practice. One aspect of their job is to conduct developmental evaluations of children who have sustained injuries or who may be delayed de

 

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Analysis: Nalwa v. Cedar Fair, LP, 290 P. 3d 1158 – Cal: Supreme Court 2012

Nalwa v. Cedar Fair, LP, 290 P. 3d 1158 – Cal: Supreme Court 2012. Plaintiff, who fractured her wrist on a bumper car ride at an amusement park, sued the park owner for negligence in not configuring or operating the bumper car ride so as to prevent her injury. The superior court granted summary judgment for defendant on the basis of the primary assumption of risk doctrine, under which participants in and operators of certain activities have no duty of ordinary care to protect other participants from risks inherent in the activity. (Knight v. Jewett (1992) 3 Cal.4th 296, 315-316 [11 Cal.Rptr.2d 2, 834 P.2d 696].) The Court of Appeal, concluding the doctrine did not apply to bumper car rides, reversed.

(1) We conclude the primary assumption of risk doctrine, though most frequently applied to sports, applies as well to certain other recreational activities including bumper car rides. We further conclude the doctrine applies to the ride here, even though amusement parks are subject to state safety regulations and even though, as to some rides, park owners owe participants the heightened duty of care of a common carrier for reward. (See Gomez v. Superior Court (2005) 35 Cal.4th 1125, 1141 [29 Cal.Rptr.3d 352, 113 P.3d 41] [roller coasters and similar rides]). Finally, we hold defendant’s limited duty of care under the primary assumption of risk doctrine — the duty not to unreasonably increase the risk of injury over and above that inherent in the low-speed collisions essential to bumper car rides — did not extend to preventing head-on collisions between the cars. We therefore reverse the Court of Appeal’s judgment.

FACTUAL AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND

On July 5, 2005, plaintiff, Dr. Smriti Nalwa, took her nine-year-old son and six-year-old daughter to Great America amusement park, owned and operated by defendant Cedar Fair, L.P. In the afternoon, plaintiff and her children went on the park’s Rue le Dodge bumper car ride.

The ride consisted of small, two-seat, electrically powered vehicles that moved around a flat surface. Each car was ringed with a rubber bumper and had a padded interior and seatbelts for both driver and passenger. The driver of each car controlled its steering and acceleration.

Plaintiff rode as a passenger in a bumper car her son drove, while her daughter drove a car by herself. Plaintiff’s son steered while plaintiff sat next to him in the bumper car; they bumped into several other cars during the course of the ride. Toward the end of the ride, plaintiff’s bumper car was bumped from the front and then from behind. Feeling a need to brace herself, plaintiff put her hand on the car’s “dashboard.” According to plaintiff’s son, “something like cracked” and plaintiff cried out, “Oh.” Plaintiff’s wrist was fractured.

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*1153 The Rue le Dodge ride was inspected annually for safety by California’s Department of Industrial Relations, Division of Occupational Health and Safety, and was inspected every morning by defendant’s maintenance and ride operations departments. On the morning of plaintiff’s injury, it was found to be working normally. Fifty-five injuries were reported occurring on or around the Rue le Dodge ride in 2004 and 2005, including contusions, lacerations, abrasions and strains. Plaintiff’s was the only fracture reported.

Head-on bumping was prohibited on the Rue le Dodge ride, a safety rule the ride operators were to enforce by lecturing those they saw engaging in the practice and, if a guest persisted in head-on bumping, by stopping the ride and asking the person to leave. At the time of plaintiff’s injury, defendant operated the bumper car rides at its four other amusement parks so that the cars could be driven in only one direction.

In her operative complaint, plaintiff pleaded causes of action for common carrier liability, willful misconduct, strict products liability (in two counts) and negligence, but later dismissed the two products liability counts. The trial court granted defendant’s motion for summary judgment on the remaining causes of action, concluding the primary assumption of risk doctrine barred recovery for negligence because plaintiff’s injury arose from being bumped, a risk inherent in the activity of riding bumper cars. The heightened duty of care for common carriers did not apply, the trial court found, because defendant had no control over the steering and orientation of the individual bumper cars, nor was there any willful misconduct as defendant did not act with knowledge or reckless disregard of a likely injury.

The Court of Appeal reversed in a divided decision, holding that the public policy of promoting safety at amusement parks precludes application of the primary assumption of risk doctrine, and the doctrine is inapplicable to bumper car rides in particular because that activity is “too benign” to be considered a “sport.” Even if the doctrine applied to the Rue le Dodge ride, the court further reasoned, defendant could have reduced the ride’s risks by configuring it to minimize head-on collisions. The dissenting justice argued the primary assumption of risk doctrine is not limited to those activities deemed “sports”; that its application to an amusement park ride does not violate any discernable public policy; and that the risk of injury from any collision, including head-on bumping, is inherent in the activity of riding bumper cars.

We granted defendant’s petition for review.

DISCUSSION

A motion for summary judgment “shall be granted if all the papers submitted show that there is no triable issue as to any material fact and that 

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*1154 the moving party is entitled to a judgment as a matter of law.” (Code Civ. Proc., § 437c, subd. (c).) A defendant “has met his or her burden of showing that a cause of action has no merit if that party has shown that one or more elements of the cause of action … cannot be established ….” (Id., subd. (p)(2).) Upon such a showing, “the burden shifts to the plaintiff … to show that a triable issue of one or more material facts exists as to that cause of action….” (Ibid.)

“On review of an order granting or denying summary judgment, we examine the facts presented to the trial court and determine their effect as a matter of law…. [D]efendant asserted, and the trial court found, that plaintiff’s evidence failed to establish the `duty’ element of plaintiff’s cause of action for negligence. Duty, being a question of law, is particularly amenable to resolution by summary judgment.” (Parsons v. Crown Disposal Co. (1997) 15 Cal.4th 456, 464-465 [63 Cal.Rptr.2d 291, 936 P.2d 70].)

We must decide whether, as a matter of law and on the undisputed facts presented to the trial court, the primary assumption of risk doctrine relieved defendant, as operator of the Rue le Dodge ride, of its duty of ordinary care to protect plaintiff, a participant on the ride, from the risk of injuries resulting from the collision or collisions that fractured her wrist.

I. 

Application of Primary Assumption of Risk to “Nonsport” Recreational Activities

(2) “Although persons generally owe a duty of due care not to cause an unreasonable risk of harm to others (Civ. Code, § 1714, subd. (a)), some activities — and, specifically, many sports — are inherently dangerous. Imposing a duty to mitigate those inherent dangers could alter the nature of the activity or inhibit vigorous participation.” (Kahn v. East Side Union High School Dist. (2003) 31 Cal.4th 990, 1003 [4 Cal.Rptr.3d 103, 75 P.3d 30].) The primary assumption of risk doctrine, a rule of limited duty, developed to avoid such a chilling effect. (Ibid.; Knight v. Jewett, supra, 3 Cal.4th at p. 308.) Where the doctrine applies to a recreational activity, operators, instructors and participants in the activity owe other participants only the duty not to act so as to increase the risk of injury over that inherent in the activity. (Avila v. Citrus Community College Dist. (2006) 38 Cal.4th 148, 162 [41 Cal.Rptr.3d 299, 131 P.3d 383]; Kahn, at p. 1004.)

The parties disagree, first, as to whether a bumper car ride is among the activities to which the doctrine of primary assumption of risk applies. Plaintiff argues the doctrine, as an exception to the general duty of ordinary care, is properly limited to certain narrow categories, one of which is active sports. Plaintiff embraces the Court of Appeal majority’s assessment that 

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*1155 “[o]n a commonsense level, we simply cannot conclude that riding in a bumper car as a passenger implicates a sport within any understanding of the word” and urges that we not “extend” the doctrine to apply to a bumper car ride.

Defendant maintains the doctrine of primary assumption of risk is not limited to sports and should apply to amusement park rides that involve inherent risks of injury, including bumper cars, because imposing a duty to minimize inherent risks would tend to change the nature of such rides or cause their abandonment. In defendant’s view, a duty to minimize the inherent risk of injury from bumper car rides would “requir[e] amusement park operators to eliminate their existing rides and to replace them with rides that are fundamentally different,” contrary to the policy motivating this court’s primary assumption of risk decisions, that of preventing common law tort rules from undermining Californians’ recreational opportunities. For reasons explained below, we agree with defendant.

This court’s seminal decision explicating and applying primary assumption of risk in the recreational context, Knight v. Jewett, involved a sporting activity, an informal game of touch football. (Knight v. Jewett, supra, 3 Cal.4th at p. 300 (Knight).) In applying the doctrine in that case, therefore, we naturally addressed its use in “the sports setting,” explaining that certain dangers are often integral to “the sport itself” and that defendants generally have no duty to protect a plaintiff from “risks inherent in the sport itself.” (Id. at p. 315.) But in outlining the doctrine generally, we used broader language, referring to “the nature of the activity or sport” (id. at p. 309), “a potentially dangerous activity or sport” (id. at p. 311), and “risks inherent in the activity or sport itself” (ibid.).

While our subsequent decisions applying the doctrine to recreation have, like Knight, involved sports,[1] two Court of Appeal decisions have found the doctrine applicable to recreational activities not considered sports. (See Amezcua v. Los Angeles Harley-Davidson, Inc. (2011) 200 Cal.App.4th 217, 

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*1156 231-232 [132 Cal.Rptr.3d 567] [organized, noncompetitive group motorcycle ride]; Beninati v. Black Rock City, LLC (2009) 175 Cal.App.4th 650, 661 [96 Cal.Rptr.3d 105][participation in fire ritual at Burning Man festival].) Other courts have reached the same result by applying a broad definition of “sport” to include physical but noncompetitive recreational activities (see Moser v. Ratinoff (2003) 105 Cal.App.4th 1211, 1221 [130 Cal.Rptr.2d 198] [organized, noncompetitive group bicycle ride]; Record v. Reason (1999) 73 Cal.App.4th 472, 482 [86 Cal.Rptr.2d 547] [“tubing,” i.e., riding an inner tube towed by a motor boat]) or by assessing the nature of a recreational activity without attempting to classify it as a sport or nonsport (see Ferrari v. Grand Canyon Dories (1995) 32 Cal.App.4th 248, 253-254 [38 Cal.Rptr.2d 65] [riding in commercially operated river raft].)

In contrast, a few courts have, like the appellate court below, cited the nonsport character of an activity as one ground for not bringing it within the primary assumption of risk doctrine. (Kindrich v. Long Beach Yacht Club (2008) 167 Cal.App.4th 1252, 1258, 1262 [84 Cal.Rptr.3d 824] [passenger who broke leg jumping from boat to dock was not engaged in an active sport]; Shannon v. Rhodes (2001) 92 Cal.App.4th 792, 800 [112 Cal.Rptr.2d 217] [boat ride on lake not a “`sport’ within any understanding of the word”]; Bush v. Parents Without Partners (1993) 17 Cal.App.4th 322, 328 [21 Cal.Rptr.2d 178] [“recreational dancing … not a sport within the ambit of Knight”].)

(3) We agree with the dissenting justice below, and the court in Beninati, that the primary assumption of risk doctrine is not limited to activities classified as sports, but applies as well to other recreational activities “involving an inherent risk of injury to voluntary participants … where the risk cannot be eliminated without altering the fundamental nature of the activity.” (Beninati v. Black Rock City, LLC, supra, 175 Cal.App.4th at p. 658.)

The primary assumption of risk doctrine rests on a straightforward policy foundation: the need to avoid chilling vigorous participation in or sponsorship of recreational activities by imposing a tort duty to eliminate or reduce the risks of harm inherent in those activities. It operates on the premise that imposing such a legal duty “would work a basic alteration — or cause abandonment” of the activity. (Kahn v. East Side Union High School Dist., supra, 31 Cal.4th at p. 1003; see Shin v. Ahn, supra, 42 Cal.4th at p. 492, quoting Dilger v. Moyles (1997) 54 Cal.App.4th 1452, 1455 [63 Cal.Rptr.2d 591] [“`Holding [golfers] liable for missed hits would only encourage lawsuits and deter players from enjoying the sport.'”]; Avila v. Citrus Community College Dist., supra, 38 Cal.4th at p. 165 [in baseball, recognizing tort liability for hitting the batter with a pitch would tend to deter 

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*1157throwing inside, an essential part of the sport]; Ford v. Gouin, supra, 3 Cal.4th at p. 345 [imposing tort liability for negligence in towing water-skier might well chill participation and “have a generally deleterious effect on the nature of the sport of waterskiing as a whole”]; Knight, supra, 3 Cal.4th at p. 318 [doctrine avoids chilling vigorous participation in sport].) The doctrine’s parameters should be drawn according to that goal.

The policy behind primary assumption of risk applies squarely to injuries from physical recreation, whether in sports or nonsport activities. Allowing voluntary participants in an active recreational pursuit to sue other participants or sponsors for failing to eliminate or mitigate the activity’s inherent risks would threaten the activity’s very existence and nature. In thus concluding, we do not “expand the doctrine to any activity with an inherent risk,” as the majority below cautioned.[2]While inherent risks exist, for example, in travel on the streets and highways and in many workplaces, we agree with the lower court that “the primary assumption of risk doctrine in its modern, post-Knight construction is considerably narrower in its application.” (See Knight, supra, 3 Cal.4th at pp. 311-312 [primary assumption of risk inapplicable to automobile accidents or medical negligence].) But active recreation, because it involves physical activity and is not essential to daily life, is particularly vulnerable to the chilling effects of potential tort liability for ordinary negligence. And participation in recreational activity, however valuable to one’s health and spirit, is voluntary in a manner employment and daily transportation are not.

(4) The doctrine thus applies to bumper car collisions, regardless of whether or not one deems bumper cars a “sport.” Low-speed collisions between the padded, independently operated cars are inherent in — are the whole point of — a bumper car ride. As plaintiff agreed in her deposition: “The point of the bumper car is to bump — [¶] … [¶] You pretty much can’t have a bumper car unless you have bumps.” While not highly dangerous, such collisions, resulting in sudden changes in speed and direction, do carry an inherent risk of minor injuries, and this risk cannot be eliminated without changing the basic character of the activity. In the words of the dissenting justice below: “Imposing liability would have the likely effect of the amusement park either eliminating the ride altogether or altering its character to such a degree — by, for example, significantly decreasing the speed at which the minicars could operate — that the fun of bumping would be eliminated, 

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*1158 thereby discouraging patrons from riding. Indeed, who would want to ride a tapper car at an amusement park?”

As she did in Knight and several cases since, Justice Kennard dissents here from application of the primary assumption of risk doctrine. (Dis. opn. of Kennard, J., post, at pp. 1164-1165.) In light of the dissenter’s consistent urging that we return to the traditional consent-based assumption of risk defense, it is worth reiterating some of the reasons given in Knight for abandoning that defense in favor of a limited-duty rule. (See Knight, supra, 3 Cal.4th at pp. 311-313.)[3] The traditional rule, resting on a legal fiction that the plaintiff had impliedly consented to the activity’s known risks, would completely bar the plaintiff’s recovery because of his or her unreasonable conduct, putting the defense in severe tension with comparative fault principles adopted in Li v. Yellow Cab Co. (1975) 13 Cal.3d 804 [119 Cal.Rptr. 858, 532 P.2d 1226]. (Knight, at p. 311.) In theory, moreover, it could apply to risks beyond those inherent in the activity — even reckless or intentional misconduct, were it shown the plaintiff was aware of the potential for such misconduct — and apply as well to activities far beyond the realm of sports and recreation, such as automobile travel and medical treatment, that carry known risks of injury from others’ negligence. (Id. at pp. 311-312.) Finally, the implied-consent theory’s focus on what the individual plaintiff subjectively knew about the nature and magnitude of the risks being encountered subjected the defendants to widely disparate liability for the same conduct, and made summary judgment on the basis of assumption of risk very rare, since the defense depended on proof of the particular plaintiff’s subjective knowledge and expectations. (Id. at pp. 312-313.) The dissenting opinion here does not persuade us these considerations have lost their force.

(5) The dissent argues that the question of which risks are inherent in a recreational activity is fact intensive and hence unsuitable for resolution as a matter of law, especially on a demurrer or a defense motion for summary judgment. (Dis. opn. of Kennard, J., post, at pp. 1166-1167.) We disagree. Judges deciding inherent risk questions under Knight may consider not only their own or common experience with the recreational activity involved but may also consult case law, other published materials, and documentary evidence introduced by the parties on a motion for summary judgment. (See Avila v. Citrus Community College Dist., supra, 38 Cal.4th at pp. 163-165; Kahn v. East Side Union High School Dist., supra, 31 Cal.4th at pp. 999, 1011-1012, 1017; cf. Cabral v. Ralphs Grocery Co. (2011) 51 Cal.4th 764, 775-776, fn. 5 [122 Cal.Rptr.3d 313, 248 P.3d 1170] [court may consult published material on legal questions, including existence of a tort duty, 

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*1159 without formally taking judicial notice].) That deciding inherent risk may sometimes be difficult does not persuade us it is beyond the competence of California courts.

II. 

Application of Primary Assumption of Risk to an Amusement Park Ride

Plaintiff, however, contends that because amusement park rides are the subject of state regulations for safety and inspection, and because operators of some rides have been considered common carriers for reward, public policy precludes applying the primary assumption of risk doctrine to amusement park rides generally, including the bumper cars on which she was injured.

With regard to state regulation of amusement parks, plaintiff stresses she does not claim defendant violated any applicable regulation in its operation of the Rue le Dodge ride[4] and is not arguing for a presumption of negligence under Evidence Code section 669, subdivision (a) that would preclude application here of the assumption of risk doctrine. (See generally Cheong v. Antablin, supra, 16 Cal.4th at pp. 1070-1072.) Instead, plaintiff argues “the proper focus is on what public policy is reflected in these regulations and whether that policy supports holding [defendant] legally responsible for the harm it caused [plaintiff].”

Plaintiff contends the extensive state regulations governing the design, construction, maintenance and operation of amusement park rides exist for the protection of riders’ safety, demonstrating an overriding policy concern inconsistent with application of the primary assumption of risk doctrine. As the Court of Appeal majority put the argument, the policy considerations behind the doctrine, avoiding the chilling effect of tort liability on vigorous participation, “are reversed in the amusement park setting. As the regulatory scheme bears out, the concern is not to excuse possible dangerous conditions in order to increase the thrill of a ride. Instead, rider safety is of paramount concern. Public policy, under the facts here, supports the imposition of a duty 

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*1160 on amusement park owners to protect the public from the possible grave dangers of amusement park rides. (Cal. Code Regs, tit. 8, § 3900.)”[5]

(6) We do not agree that the existence of safety regulations governing amusement park rides exempts them from the primary assumption of risk doctrine. To be sure, the assurance of relative safety from grave injury, which state regulation helps to provide, is essential to amusement parks; few would voluntarily ride a roller coaster that regularly caused serious personal injuries. But perfect immunity from all risk of even minor injury is not generally the goal of the amusement park rider, and the state regulations do not guarantee such complete and perfect absence of risk. As Justice Cardozo, then Chief Justice of the New York Court of Appeals, explained more than 80 years ago, the attractions of the amusement park “are not the pleasures of tranquillity.” (Murphy v. Steeplechase Amusement Co. (1929) 250 N.Y. 479, 483 [166 N.E. 173].) A small degree of risk inevitably accompanies the thrill of speeding through curves and loops, defying gravity or, in bumper cars, engaging in the mock violence of low-speed collisions. Those who voluntarily join in these activities also voluntarily take on their minor inherent risks. As for the rest: “The timorous may stay at home.” (Ibid.; see Gardner v. G. Howard Mitchell, Inc.(1931) 107 N.J.L. 311 [153 A. 607, 609] [plaintiff assumed risk of bumping on a “Dodgem” ride: “It was for the thrill of bumping and of the escape from being bumped that plaintiff entered the contrivance …. The chance of a collision was that which gave zest to the game upon which plaintiff had entered. She willingly exposed herself to the contingency of a collision.”].)

Plaintiff also argues the public policy of protecting passengers of a common carrier for reward, as expressed in Civil Code section 2100, precludes limiting defendant’s duty to riders on Rue le Dodge.[6] In Gomez v. Superior Court, we held that an operator of a “roller coaster or similar amusement park ride can be a carrier of persons for reward” for purposes of Civil Code section 2100. (Gomez v. Superior Court, supra, 35 Cal.4th at p. 1136, fn. 5 (Gomez).) At the same time, however, we expressed no opinion “whether other, dissimilar, amusement rides or attractions can be carriers of persons for reward.” (Ibid.)

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*1161 Gomez’s caveat applies here. Bumper car rides like Rue le Dodge are dissimilar to roller coasters in ways that disqualify their operators as common carriers. The dissenting justice below, we believe, analyzed this point correctly: “A bumper car ride is quite different from a roller coaster…. A roller coaster is constrained to a track and subject to the exclusive control of the operator. Those choosing to ride a roller coaster `”surrender[] themselves to the care and custody of the [operator]; they … give[] up their freedom of movement and actions ….” [Citation.]’ (Gomez, supra, 35 Cal.4th at p. 1137.) … [¶] In contrast, a bumper car ride such as Rue le Dodge consists of small electric cars that operate at medium speeds around a flat surface track…. Cedar Fair and its employees maintain and inspect the ride; set maximum speeds for the minicars; load and unload riders; activate the ride; have control over an emergency switch disabling the electricity powering the minicars; and enforce various riding instructions and safety rules. But once the ride commences, patrons exercise independent control over the steering and acceleration of the cars. Unlike roller coaster riders, they do not surrender their freedom of movement and actions. Rue le Dodge riders have control over the entertainment element of the ride, the bumping, as they determine when to turn and accelerate. [Citation.] A rider of a roller coaster has no control over the elements of thrill of the ride; the amusement park predetermines any ascents, drops, accelerations, decelerations, turns or twists of the ride.”

(7) Riders on Rue le Dodge, in other words, are not passively carried or transported from one place to another. They actively engage in a game, trying to bump others or avoid being bumped themselves. The rationale for holding the operator of a roller coaster to the duties of a common carrier for reward — that riders, having delivered themselves into the control of the operator, are owed the highest degree of care for their safety — simply does not apply to bumper car riders’ safety from the risks inherent in bumping. “The rule that carriers of passengers are held to the highest degree of care is based on the recognition that `”[t]o his diligence and fidelity are intrusted the lives and safety of large numbers of human beings.”‘” (Gomez, supra, 35 Cal.4th at p. 1136.) A bumper car rider, in contrast, does not entrust the operator with his or her safety from the risks of low-speed collisions.

The undisputed facts in the summary judgment record demonstrate defendant was not a common carrier for reward in its operation of Rue le Dodge. The public policy supporting a higher duty of care for common carriers, therefore, does not apply here and does not preclude application of the primary assumption of risk doctrine.

1162*1162 III. 

Defendant’s Duty as Operator of the Ride

(8) Plaintiff argues that because defendant controlled and reaped economic benefits from the operation of the Rue le Dodge ride, public policy supports holding defendant to the ordinary duty of due care with regard to its conduct of the ride. We agree that in delineating legal duty a defendant’s relationship to the activity in which the plaintiff was injured is a proper consideration, but not that the relationship here makes imposition of an ordinary negligence duty appropriate.

(9) Although the defendant in Knight was a coparticipant in the touch football game that led to the plaintiff’s injury, in articulating the rule of limited duty we referred as well to sponsors and operators of an activity. (See Knight, supra, 3 Cal.4th at pp. 316 [ski resort operator has no duty to remove moguls from run, but does have a duty to maintain towropes in safe condition], 318 [citing decisions on duties of sports facilities owners, equipment manufacturers, instructors and coaches].) The scope of the duty owed to participants in active recreation, we explained, depends not only on the nature of the activity but also on the role of the defendant whose conduct is at issue. (Id. at pp. 317-318.) Our later decisions establish that under the primary assumption of risk doctrine, operators, sponsors and instructors in recreational activities posing inherent risks of injury have no duty to eliminate those risks, but do owe participants the duty not to unreasonably increase the risks of injury beyond those inherent in the activity. (Avila v. Citrus Community College Dist., supra, 38 Cal.4th at p. 162; Kahn v. East Side Union High School Dist., supra, 31 Cal.4th at pp. 1003, 1005.)

Plaintiff quotes the Court of Appeal majority’s reasoning that a greater duty should apply to proprietors of recreational activities because they are “uniquely positioned to eliminate or minimize certain risks, and are best financially capable of absorbing the relatively small cost of doing so.” As to the inherent risks of injury from recreation, we disagree. A rule imposing negligence duties on sponsors, organizers and operators of recreational activities would encompass not only commercial companies like defendant but also noncommercial organizations without extensive budgets or paid staff. Such groups might not easily afford insurance to cover injuries that are inherent risks of the activity; nor could they readily collect large fees from participants to cover that cost. The primary assumption of risk doctrine helps ensure that the threat of litigation and liability does not cause such recreational activities to be abandoned or fundamentally altered in an effort to eliminate or minimize inherent risks of injury.

1163

*1163 (10) Finally, comparing this case to decisions addressing the duty to reduce extrinsic risks of an activity, plaintiff argues defendant owed her a duty to take reasonable measures to eliminate or minimize head-on bumping, which she characterizes as beyond the inherent risks of a bumper car ride.[7] Even assuming a triable issue of fact exists that plaintiff’s injury resulted from a head-on collision — the record contains no direct evidence it did — we disagree. While the risks of injury from bumping bumper cars are generally low, a minor injury could occur from bumping at any angle. No qualitative distinction exists among the possible angles of collision, and hence no principled basis exists to impose a duty of care uniquely for 180-degree collisions.

 

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Rossiter Company failed to record a credit sale at the end of the year, although the reduction in finished goods inventories was correctly recorded when the goods were shipped to the customer.

Which of the following should NOT be included as part of manufacturing overhead at a company that makes office furniture? sheet steel in a file cabinet made by the company.manufacturing equipment depreciation.idle time for direct labor.taxes on a factory building.

Question 24: 1 pts Rossiter Company failed to record a credit sale at the end of the year, although the reduction in finished goods inventories was correctly recorded when the goods were shipped to the customer. Which one of the following statements is correct? Rossiter Company failed to record a credit sale at the end of the year, although the reduction in finished goods inventories was correctly recorded when the goods were shipped to the customer. Which one of the following statements is correct?

  1. Accounts receivable was not affected, inventory was not affected, sales were understated, and cost of goods sold was understated.
  2. Accounts receivable was understated, inventory was overstated, sales were understated, and cost of goods sold was overstated.
  3. Accounts receivable was not affected, inventory was understated, sales were understated, and cost of goods sold was understated.
  4. Accounts receivable was understated, inventory was not affected, sales were understated, and cost of goods sold was not affected.

Question 25: 1 pts If the cost of goods sold is greater than the cost of goods manufactured, then: If the cost of goods sold is greater than the cost of goods manufactured, then:

  1. work in process inventory has decreased during the period.
  2. finished goods inventory has increased during the period.
  3. total manufacturing costs must be greater than cost of goods manufactured.
  4. finished goods inventory has decreased during the period.

Question 26: 1 pts Skip to question text.Last month, when 10,000 units of a product were manufactured, the cost per unit was $60. At this level of activity, variable costs are 50% of total unit costs. If 10,500 units are manufactured next month and cost behavior patterns remain unchanged the:

  1. total variable cost will remain unchanged.
  2. fixed costs will increase in total.
  3. variable cost per unit will increase.
  4. total cost per unit will decrease.

Question 27: 1 pts Variable cost: Variable cost:

  1. increases on a per unit basis as the number of units produced increases.
  2. remains constant on a per unit basis as the number of units produced increases.
  3. remains the same in total as production increases.
  4. decreases on a per unit basis as the number of units produced increases.

Question 28: 1 pts Within the relevant range, the difference between variable costs and fixed costs is: Within the relevant range, the difference between variable costs and fixed costs is:

  1. variable costs per unit fluctuate and fixed costs per unit remain constant.
  2. variable costs per unit are constant and fixed costs per unit fluctuate.
  3. both total variable costs and total fixed costs are constant.
  4. both total variable costs and total fixed costs fluctuate.

Question 29: 1 pts Which of the following statements regarding fixed costs is incorrect? Which of the following statements regarding fixed costs is incorrect?

  1. Expressing fixed costs on a per unit basis usually is the best approach for decision making.
  2. Fixed costs expressed on a per unit basis will react inversely with changes in activity.
  3. Assumptions by accountants regarding the behavior of fixed costs rest heavily on the concept of the relevant range.
  4. Fixed costs frequently represent long-term investments in property, plant, and equipment.

Question 30: 1 pts An opportunity cost is: An opportunity cost is:

  1. the difference in total costs which results from selecting one alternative instead of another.
  2. the benefit forgone by selecting one alternative instead of another.
  3. a cost which may be saved by not adopting an alternative.
  4. a cost which may be shifted to the future with little or no effect on current operations.

Question 31: 1 pts Which of the following costs is often important in decision making, but is omitted from conventional accounting records? Which of the following costs is often important in decision making, but is omitted from conventional accounting records?

  1. Fixed cost.
  2. Sunk cost.
  3. Opportunity cost.
  4. Indirect cost.

Question 32: 1 pts When a decision is made among a number of alternatives, the benefit that is lost by choosing one alternative over another is the: When a decision is made among a number of alternatives, the benefit that is lost by choosing one alternative over another is the:

  1. realized cost.
  2. opportunity cost.
  3. conversion cost.
  4. accrued cost.

Question 33: 1 pts Conversion cost consists of which of the following?

  1. Manufacturing overhead cost.
  2. Direct materials and direct labor cost.
  3. Direct labor cost.
  4. Direct labor and manufacturing overhead cost.

Question 34: 1 pts Which one of the following costs should NOT be considered an indirect cost of serving a particular customer at a Dairy Queen fast food outlet?

  1. the cost of the hamburger patty in the burger they ordered.
  2. the wages of the employee who takes the customer’s order.
  3. the cost of heating and lighting the kitchen.
  4. the salary of the outlet’s manager.

Question 35: 1 pts Skip to question text.Green Company’s costs for the month of August were as follows: direct materials, $27,000; direct labor, $34,000; sales salaries, $14,000; indirect labor, $10,000; indirect materials, $15,000; general corporate administrative cost, $12,000; taxes on manufacturing facility, $2,000; and rent on factory, $17,000. The beginning work in process inventory was $16,000 and the ending work in process inventory was $9,000. What was the cost of goods manufactured for the month?

  1. $105,000
  2. $132,000
  3. $138,000
  4. $112,000

 

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